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Make Money On The Internet Power Yourself With The Right Information

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everybody knows that there are plenty of ways to make money on the Internet. But, the reason why the majority are still not using any of the ways is that they don’t know how and where to start. Among all the different ways, the smartest way to make a lot of money online is probably through Internet marketing. This is mainly because it provides you an excellent opportunity to make a decent income with very little or no investment at all. It has the power to skyrocket your income within a short period of time. The only things that you require to guarantee you success in this field are your intelligence and know-how blended with sincere efforts and dedication. Have Realistic Expectations The first thing that you need to do is to commit yourself to learn the secrets of internet marketing. The reason why most people are not successful with Internet marketing is that they hate the learning curve involved in the process. Majority has the misconception that when it comes to making money online, it has to be an easy way. window.google_render_ad(); They don’t feel the need to work hard to make real money on the Internet. They want to earn while they sleep so that they become rich overnight. In fact, this is what websites claim to do for you, when you search the keyword “make money on Internet” on Google. The search results of thousands of websites claim to offer you easy ways to make millions of dollars within a day or two. Now, had they been genuine, wouldn’t everybody on this earth be a millionaire? The reason why they are not is that these websites are actually nothing but spams. So, there are a few basic things that you need to understand and keep in mind before you go ahead and start hunting for the best way to make money on Internet. Firstly, it is not easy. You must be ready to work hard and put in some earnest efforts. You may choose to work part-time, but you will still be working hard. No work, no pay. Secondly, you do not have to buy an idea. If a website is asking you to pay a certain amount of money (even if it is a very small amount), it is a spam. The genuine sites will never ask you to pay anything to get access to the money making secret they have successfully used. Thirdly, you won’t become a millionaire overnight. It takes time to build a success story. It is possible to become a millionaire, but only after hard work of at least six months to a year. When you start your Internet marketing venture with these basic things in mind, you always find the path to success, a smooth one.

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Madonna urged to rethink adoption

Madonna also has two biological children, Lourdes and Rocco

Pop star Madonna has been urged by Save the Children to reconsider her apparent plans to adopt another Malawian child.

Malawian officials have indicated she will arrive in the African country this weekend in an attempt to adopt a four-year-old orphan called Mercy James.

The UK-based charity said ideally orphans should be cared for by their extended family or community and taking them abroad was "not a solution".

Madonna took then 13-month-old David Banda to the UK from Malawi in 2006.

The Reuters news agency reported that it was told Mercy James has "no father and mother, they both died", and an assessment had been completed on Thursday.

Madonna is expected to arrive in Malawi to attend a procedural hearing at the country's High Court on Monday.

Adoption papers

Save the Children spokesman Dominic Nutt told the BBC's Newshour programme: "For the most part so-called orphans in poor countries tend to have family still available to them, if not actually a parent still living.

"It is vital, we say, that children should not be taken abroad to be looked after but should be cared for in their own environment by their own community, ideally by their own family, particularly their extended family."

You cannot literally take every poor child who may only have one parent living, or no parent living, across the world and transport them all into Kensington in London Dominic Nutt, Save the Children

He said even if an orphaned child had no extended family, it was "much easier and better" to continue looking after them in their own country.

"The thing to do is to support the community, to support local agencies and charities who can look after the child so that the child is at least cared for in their community," he said.

"You cannot literally take every poor child who may only have one parent living, or no parent living, across the world and transport them all into Kensington in London. It's not a solution."

Madonna took David Banda to the UK from an orphanage three years ago and the official adoption of the boy was confirmed last year.

An official at the Malawian department of women and child welfare told the BBC's Raphael Tenthani that the pop star had already filed adoption papers and her case could be heard as early as next week.

The official later told the Reuters news agency: "We expect her over the weekend or earlier than that... but without a doubt she is coming before the end of this month."

Madonna's spokeswoman in New York, Liz Rosenberg, and her lawyer in Malawi, Alan Chinula, have not commented.

However, a US government official - speaking under condition of anonymity - told Reuters that an adoption bid was under way.

'Role model'

Writing in response to e-mailed questions from Nation readers last week, Madonna said: "Many people - especially our Malawian friends - say that David should have a Malawian brother or sister.

"It's something I have been considering."

In 2006, critics accused the Malawian government of sidestepping laws banning foreign adoptions in order to allow the celebrity to take David home with her.

After the adoption was legalised, Madonna said the difficulties had arisen because "this adoption essentially was the beginning of the creation of adoption laws in Malawi".

She hoped it would make it easier for others to adopt from the country and explained: "I am the template or the role model, so to speak, for future adoptions."

The star also has two biological children - Rocco, her son with former husband Guy Ritchie, and Lourdes, whose father is Carlos Leon.

Film director Ritchie and Madonna's divorce was finalised in November.

Malawi does not, as a rule, approve adoptions for single or divorced people, but the official at the country's welfare department said that each case was considered on merit.

MTV and YouTube go head to head

MTV has the edge over YouTube for music, but for how much longer?

A higher percentage of 15-24 year olds in the UK have watched a music video on YouTube than on dedicated music channels, according to a new study.

The report found that 57% of 15-24 year olds watched music on YouTube, compared to 56% watching them on TV.

However, TV still has a commanding lead when it comes to adults as a whole.

The survey also found that half of all adults who watched a YouTube music video went on to buy music released by that artist.

The study, by market research firm Ipsos MediaCT, looked at the viewing habits of more than 1500 people, across the United Kingdom, in March 2009.

It found that double the number of 15-24 year olds were using YouTube to watch music videos, compared to other age groups. This percentage rose even more for those still in education, with 69% using the music channels on YouTube.

Television still has the edge when it comes to children. Or at least, families with children aged 10-15.

48% of these families have watched a music video on TV compared with 39% having watched music videos on YouTube.

ADULTS WATCHING MUSIC VIDEOS ON YOUTUBE IN LAST 12 MONTHS Age 15 - 24 57% Age 25 - 34 30% Age 35 - 44 24% Age 45 - 54 25% Age 55+ 3% Source: Ipsos MediaCT

Speaking to the BBC, Ipsos' head of entertainment research, Ian Bramley, said that TV music channels may have to rethink their position.

"There is a significant shift in the way the youngest adult age group watches its music videos. One would think this age group would stick with watching music videos online as they get older.

"TV music channels are doing very well, but they need to look at exactly who is actually watching their channel. It's probably not who they think their target market is.

"There may be a case, when we do this again, that the market starts to fragment and that TV music channels will need to reposition themselves for an older market," added Mr Bramley.

Coughing up

The survey also looked at what people do as a result of watching a YouTube video. It found that 50% of adult users then go on to purchase music, although the majority (36%) buy a CD, rather than a paid for digital download (15%). Another 7% go on to buy concert tickets.

The issue of copyright has dogged YouTube since its launch

Among the 15-24 age bracket, the difference becomes more pronounced, with 45% opting for a CD/DVD and 19% buying music via a digital download service.

The public's perception of the ongoing dispute between YouTube and the PRS for Music (formerly known as the Performing Rights Society) was also surveyed.

At the beginning of March 2009, YouTube started to remove all premium music videos after failing to reach a new licensing agreement with the PRS.

47% of adults surveyed though YouTube was right to take this action, with 28% of those surveyed opposed to the move. Another 25% said they either didn't know enough about the issue or were unsure what the right decision should have been.

Drone attack reported in Pakistan

Pakistani leaders are critical of the US drone tactic

Missiles fired by a US drone have killed seven militants in north-west Pakistan, close to the Afghan border, local officials and witnesses say.

They say that the unmanned aircraft fired missiles at two vehicles in the Makin area of South Waziristan.

The missile destroyed both vehicles, the Pakistani sources said.

While officials would not confirm the nationalities of the dead, local residents said most of them were militants of Arab and Uzbek origin.

Makin is located in the north-eastern part of South Waziristan, near its border with North Waziristan.

It is inhabited by the Mahsud tribe and dominated by local warlord Baitullah Mahsud, accused of plotting the 2007 assassination of former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto.

'Priority'

"A predator strike was carried out in Makin area, 12km [eight miles] north-west of Ladha," a security official told the AFP news agency.

Correspondents say that more than 35 similar strikes have killed more than 340 people since August 2008, shortly before the election of President Asif Ali Zardari.

The US military routinely does not confirm drone attacks but the armed forces and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) operating in Afghanistan are believed to be the only forces capable of deploying drones in the region.

Wednesday's attack was the seventh missile strike believed to have been carried out by US drones since President Barack Obama came to power.

He has pledged to make the war against the Taleban and al-Qaeda in Pakistan and Afghanistan a foreign policy priority.

Pakistan is critical of the drone tactic because, it says, civilians are often killed, fuelling support for militants.

Most missile strikes by drones have targeted foreign fighters in the Waziristan region over the past couple of years.

The BBC's Ilyas Khan in Islamabad says the strikes are now also targeting facilities run by local or Afghan Taleban in the lower Kurram region, from where attacks have been launched into the Khost and Paktia provinces of Afghanistan.

The southern parts of the lower Kurram region share borders with Afghanistan's Khost province, where US and coalition forces have major deployments of forces.

Protests

Thousands of people have fled the violence in Pakistan's north-west in recent months, many of them heading to the city of Peshawar.

On Wednesday, at least one person was killed and several injured during a demonstration at the Jalozai camp near the city by people displaced by the fighting, officials said.

The protesters - from Bajaur, one of the districts worst-affected by clashes between Pakistani troops and militants - had been demanding compensation for their losses.

It is thought more than 5,000 houses have been destroyed in the fighting.

Police say they fired tear gas and shots in the air as stone-throwing protesters blocked the main road connecting Peshawar with the rest of the country. Protesters say police fired at the crowd.

At least eight people, including two policemen, were also hurt in the clashes, witnesses said

US President Barack Obama has confirmed a fundamental rethink of US strategy in Afghanistan and Pakistan to combat an "increasingly perilous" situatio

US President Barack Obama has confirmed a fundamental rethink of US strategy in Afghanistan and Pakistan to combat an "increasingly perilous" situation.

He said growing radical forces in the area posed the greatest threat to the American people and the world.

He said an extra 4,000 US personnel would train and bolster the Afghan army and police, and he would also provide support for civilian development.

The Afghan government said it welcomed "all [Mr Obama's] major conclusions".

In particular, it said it welcomed the "the recognition of the regional aspect of the problem in Afghanistan and specifically recognition that the al-Qaeda threat is mainly emanating from Pakistan," said presidential spokesman Humayun Hamidzada, according to Reuters news agency.

See map of troop deployments in Afghanistan

President Obama has taken a gamble, says the BBC's defence and security correspondent Rob Watson.

He is hoping an injection of extra resources and a new focus on Pakistan alongside Afghanistan will turn around the situation.

The question being asked is, "Can it work?", our correspondent says.

Bleak picture

President Obama said his "comprehensive new strategy" was an outcome of a "careful policy review" in which military commanders and diplomats, regional governments, partners, Nato allies, NGOs and aid organisations were consulted.

So I want the American people to understand that we have a clear and focused goal: to disrupt, dismantle and defeat al-Qaeda in Pakistan and Afghanistan Barack Obama Change of plan UK considers troop boost Send us your comments

He painted a bleak picture of the situation, with insurgents increasing their control of territory in the region around the Afghan-Pakistan border - which he termed "the most dangerous place in the world" for the American people - and attacks rising.

He said American strategy must relate directly to the threat posed to the Americans by al-Qaeda and its allies - who, he reminded his listeners, were behind the 9/11 attacks on American soil eight years ago.

And he said multiple intelligence estimates suggested fresh attacks on the US were being planned.

But he said targeting al-Qaeda was not only in the interests of American people, but populations around the world and Afghans themselves.

"This is not simply an American problem. Far from it," Mr Obama said.

"It is instead an international security challenge of the highest order."

He said US forces should not be in Afghanistan to "control that country or dictate its future", but to "confront our common enemy".

Civilian infrastructure

To achieve its goals, Mr Obama said, the US needed:

• A "stronger, smarter and more comprehensive strategy"
• Not to deny resources to Afghanistan because of existing commitments to Iraq - and here international help was needed
• To recognise the connection between the future prospects of Afghanistan and Pakistan

He said that Richard Holbrooke had already been appointed as the US envoy to both Afghanistan and Pakistan in order to facilitate this new shared perspective on both countries.

Have Your Say

It is time to negotiate peace with the Taliban

Joe, Arlington, Virginia

In Afghanistan, Mr Obama said a further 4,000 US troops would help train up the Afghan army and police - in addition to the 17,000 troops whose redeployment to Afghanistan has already been announced.

They will join some 38,000 US forces already on the ground.

Mr Obama said more help for training would also be sought from Nato allies, in order to build an Afghan army of 134,000 and a police force of 82,000.

And to help reinforce Afghanistan's crumbling civilian infrastructure, he said, US agricultural specialists, engineers and lawyers would be sent to the country.

He said this would help address the Afghan's government problems with corruption and the delivery of basic services.

'Not just bombs'

In Pakistan, Mr Obama said American help would be needed to go after al-Qaeda, which Mr Obama admitted was "no simple task".

But he said this would not amount solely to "bombs and bullets", adding that the success of this plan depended on the strength of the Pakistani government.

So, he said, he was calling upon Congress to pass a bill authorising a tripling of US spending in Pakistan to $1.5bn (£1.05bn) each year over the next five years, to help rebuild "schools, roads and hospitals".

But he said this was "no blank cheque" - and Pakistan would have to demonstrate its own commitment to rooting out the "cancer" of al-Qaeda and its allies.

Our correspondent Rob Watson says that certainly the promise of more troops, more civilians and more aid should make a difference - as will the expertise of US forces in counter-insurgency tactics gained in Iraq.

But he adds that turning things around will be no easy task, as President Obama himself acknowledged - with the Pakistan situation perhaps the most complex part of this foreign policy jigsaw.

LEAD INTERNATIONAL FORCES IN AFGHANISTAN

Locations refer to International Security Assistance Force (ISAF)

Total contributing nations: 42

ISAF total strength: Approx 61,960
for more details click here

an Israel's government build peace

an Israel's government build peace?

Israel's next Prime Minister, Benjamin Netanyahu, has said his government will be a "partner for peace" with the Palestinians. Will he be able to act on this pledge?

Correspondents say the right-winger is trying to temper his image as an opponent of the peace process.

Mr Netanyahu is under international pressure to commit to a peace formula based on the creation of a Palestinian state.

He was speaking at an economic conference in Jerusalem, a day after broadening what had been a narrow right-wing and far right coalition to include the centre-left Labour party.

Can there be peace between Israel and the Palestinians? What impact will the new Israeli government have? What do you make of Labour's decision to join the coalition? Are you in the region?

Mystery over Sudan 'air strike'

A Sudanese government minister has confirmed reports of an air raid in eastern Sudan earlier this year.

The minister, Mabrook Mubarak Saleem, told an Arabic news channel that many people had been killed in the strike, said to have taken place last month.

Israeli officials have not commented publicly on reports that their planes may have been involved.

Israel's Prime Minister, Ehud Olmert, did not confirm any raid but said Israel hit everywhere to stop terror.

"That was true in the north," said Mr Olmert, "and it was true in the south ... Those who need to know, know there is no place where Israel cannot operate."

Giving a speech in the coastal town of Herzliya, the outgoing prime minister said: "We operate in many places near and far, and carry out strikes in a manner that strengthens our deterrence."

The CBS television network said it had been told by American officials that a strike by Israeli planes in January had succeeded in preventing weapons from Sudan reaching Gaza.

Mr Mabrook Mubarak Saleem said those killed in the air raid had been civilians from a number of African countries.

'Nod and wink'

The BBC's Paul Wood in Jerusalem says Israel's response is following a traditional pattern, set when it attacked a suspected nuclear reactor in Syria in 2007, of first refusing to confirm an alleged strike and then giving a nod and a wink.

What we are getting now from Mr Olmert is clearly the nod and the wink, our correspondent says.

Much informed comment has appeared in the Israeli media, he adds, including the view of a retired general that Israel would not have had to violate anyone's airspace to carry out the strike, if it did.

Nonetheless it was a long way to fly and the assumption is that this was a serious target, our correspondent says, and that these were weapons that could have changed the game in the conflict between Israel and Palestinian militants.

They could have included surface to air missiles or perhaps missiles with a 70km (44-mile) range that would have enabled militants to hit Tel Aviv from Gaza, our correspondent adds

EU urges doubling of IMF capital

The Brussels meeting is taking place ahead of April's G20 summit in London

EU leaders have urged the G20 leading economies to double the money available to the International Monetary Fund to help countries in financial difficulty.

Leaders meeting in Brussels said they would provide up to 75bn euros ($102bn; £71bn) in loans in an effort to boost the IMF's capital to $500bn (£344bn).

They also doubled to 50bn euros (£47bn; $68bn) the amount of emergency funding available to help non-eurozone members.

But the bloc resisted US calls to spend even more to revive national economies.

They said they wanted first to gauge the effects of the 200bn-euro ($274bn; £188bn) stimulus package they have been implementing, and that the focus should be on reforming the global financial system.

A call to others to "avoid all form of protectionist measures" was overshadowed by an announcement that the French carmaker, Renault, would move a production line from Slovenia back to France.

France last month agreed to give Renault and Peugeot Citroen each 3bn euros ($4bn; £2.8bn) in loans if they kept French plants open.

The European Commission has demanded clarification about the plan.

'Message of solidarity'

The two-day Brussels meeting took place as the world's biggest economies prepare for the G20 summit in London on 2 April.

Europe is showing it's up to the challenge Jose Manuel Barroso European Commission President Mardell: Horsetrading over peanuts EU chokes on cost of rescue Union chief urges bigger EU pledge Europe's jobs evaporate

At the end of the talks, EU leaders called on other members of the G20 to double the IMF's resources, saying that co-ordinating international action is critical to "a swift return to sustainable economic growth".

Czech Prime Minister Mirek Topolanek, whose country currently holds the EU's rotating presidency, said the bloc was prepared to pay a third of the increased funds for the institution.

"If there is a need to help countries which are particularly hit by the crisis, then there is the possibility to help them - 75 billion [euros] is the figure for a voluntary loan to the IMF to act better in the crisis," he told a news conference.

Mr Topolanek also said they would double to 50bn euros the emergency balance of payments aid available to members outside the 16-nation eurozone who were "particularly hit by the crisis".

Hungary and Latvia have already received nearly 10bn euros (£9bn). Romania is also seeking a bail-out, and Lithuania is set to follow suit.

European Commission President Jose Manuel Barroso said the 25bn euros currently available would cover existing requests, but that the EU wanted to "show that we would be able to respond to these possible cases".

Mr Barroso said the summit was delivering "a message of confidence and solidarity," adding: "Europe is showing it's up to the challenge."

'Deadly idea'

The EU also ruled out an extra stimulus package, despite calls from Washington for one, instead stressing the need for greater oversight.

"The G20 summit is about getting a better regulation of the international capital markets, and there is a need for that," Prime Minister Topolanek said.

He had said on Thursday that the leaders were "unanimous in their views" that they were "going to be prudent" with stimulus plans.

G20 LONDON SUMMIT World leaders will meet next month in London to discuss measures to tackle the downturn. See our in-depth guide to the G20 summit. The G20 countries are Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, South Korea, Turkey, the United Kingdom, the US and the EU. Q&A: G20 Summit Readers' views

Mr Topolanek warned that any more deficit spending was "a deadly idea", adding that EU leaders were awaiting the results of the 200bn-euro package for 2009 and 2010 agreed in December.

The European Commission says that if member states' increases in welfare spending are included, the measures total 400bn euros - equivalent to 3.3% of the bloc's gross domestic product.

Mr Topolanek also said agreement had been reached on projects to be included in a 5bn-euro ($6.9bn; £4.7bn) package of previously unspent EU budget funds, ending a three-month-long dispute over their allocation.

Much of that money will be spent on upgrading energy infrastructure - part of a plan to avoid any repetition of the winter gas dispute between Russia and Ukraine that left much of Central and Eastern Europe with severe shortages.

The Nabucco pipeline project, which would bring gas from Central Asia to Central Europe, bypassing Russia, will receive 200m euros ($274m; £188m). Germany had opposed giving it public money.

Mr Topolanek said EU leaders had not come up with concrete proposals on aid for green projects in developing countries because "other global partners have not yet come up with their proposals".

Nasa's space shuttle Discovery has docked with the International Space Station (ISS).

iscovery's crew is welcomed by the space station's current residents

Nasa's space shuttle Discovery has docked with the International Space Station (ISS).

The visiting astronauts are delivering the orbiting platform's fourth and final set of solar arrays.

Installation work will start on Wednesday when the "backbone" segment holding the folded-up solar wings is lifted out of Discovery's payload bay.

The truss will be slotted into place at the starboard, or right, side of the station on Thursday.

Electricity from the new solar arrays will support the expansion of the ISS crew to six people and provide the power necessary to fully exploit its science labs.

Discovery hooks up to the ISS

Currently, the normal live-aboard complement is three individuals; and the station partners want to double this in May.

Another key mission task is ISS crew rotation.

Discovery is dropping off Koichi Wakata, the Japanese space agency's (Jaxa) first live-aboard station crew member. US astronaut Sandra Magnus will be returning to Earth on Discovery in his place.

The docking occurred at 2120 GMT Tuesday, with hatches opening just under 50 minutes later.

Discovery's mission is the 125th to be made by a shuttle; the 28th to the ISS; and the 36th flight for Discovery itself. click here for deatials

naquab improtance

Fatima contacted the BBC World Service citizen journalism project, Your Story, because she wanted to share her experiences of sexual abuse growing up within a strict Muslim family in Abu Dhabi.

She suffered many years of abuse before she finally told her mother what had been going on.

Fatima is now 26. She lives in the United States of America where she has just been given asylum and citizenship after establishing that she would be in danger if she returned to her home country.

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eagle hunting fox pic

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The Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) is a bird of prey found in North America that is most recognizable as the national bird and symbol of the United States of America. This sea eagle has two known sub-species and forms a species pair with the White-tailed Eagle. Its range includes most of Canada and Alaska, all of the contiguous United States and northern Mexico. It is found near large bodies of open water with an abundant food supply and old-growth trees for nesting.

The Bald Eagle is a large bird, with a body length of 71–106 cm (28–42 in), a wingspan of 183–234 cm, (72–96 in), and a mass of 3–7 kg (6.6–15.5 lb); females are about 25 percent larger than males.^[2][3] The adult Bald Eagle has a brown body with a white head and tail, and bright yellow irises, taloned feet, and a hooked beak; juveniles are completely brown except for the yellow feet. Males and females are identical in plumage coloration. Its diet consists mainly of fish, but it is an opportunistic feeder. It hunts fish by swooping down and snatching the fish out of the water with its talons. It is sexually mature at four years or five years of age. In the wild, Bald Eagles can live up to thirty years, and often survive longer in captivity.^[4] The Bald Eagle builds the largest nest of any North American bird, up to 4 meters (13 ft) deep, 2.5 meters (8 ft) wide, and one tonne (1.1 tons) in weight.^[2]

The species was on the brink of extinction in the continental United States (while flourishing in much of Alaska and Canada) late in the 20th century, but now has a stable population and has been officially removed from the U.S. federal government's list of endangered species. The Bald Eagle was officially reclassified from "Endangered" to "Threatened" on July 12, 1995 by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. On July 6, 1999, a proposal was initiated "To Remove the Bald Eagle in the Lower 48 States From the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife." It was de-listed on June 28, 2007.

The Bald Eagle remains a protected and highly revered species in the United States, and to willfully and fatally shoot or harm the species is a federal offense which can potentially result in several years of incarceration.

Contents [hide] 1 Description 2 Taxonomy 3 Habitat and range 4 Behavior 4.1 Diet 4.2 Reproduction 5 Relationship with humans 5.1 Population decline and recovery 5.2 In captivity 5.3 As the national bird of the United States 5.4 Role in Native American culture 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 8.1 Identification 9 External links 9.1 Video links

[edit] Description

The plumage of an adult Bald Eagle is evenly brown with a white head and tail. The tail is moderately long and slightly wedge-shaped. Males and females are identical in plumage coloration, however females display sexual dimorphism in that they are 25 percent larger than males.^[2] The beak, feet, and irises are bright yellow. The legs are feather-free, and the toes are short and powerful with large talons. The highly developed talon of the hind toe is used to pierce the vital areas of prey while it is held immobile by the front toes.^[5] The beak is large and hooked, with a yellow cere.^[6]

The plumage of the immature is brown, speckled with white until the fifth (rarely fourth, very rarely third) year, when it reaches sexual maturity.^[2][5] Immature Bald Eagles are distinguishable from the Golden Eagle in that the former has a more protruding head with a larger bill, straighter edged wings which are held flat (not slightly raised) and with a stiffer wing beat, and feathers which do not completely cover the legs.^[7] Also, the immature Bald Eagle has more light feathers in the upper arm area, especially around the very top of the arm.

Juvenile on sand.

Body length ranges from 71–106 centimeters (28–42 in). Adult females have a wingspan of up to 2.44 m (96 in), while adult males may be as small as 1.68 m (69 in).^[2] Adult females weigh approximately 5.8 kg (12.8 lb), males weigh 4.1 kg (9 lb).^[8] The size of the bird varies by location; the smallest specimens are those from Florida, where an adult male may barely exceed 2.3 kg (5 lb) and a wingspan of 1.8 m (6 ft). The largest are Alaskan birds, where large females may exceed 7.5 kg (16.5 lb) and have a wingspan of over 2.4 m (8 ft).^[6]

The call consists of weak chirping whistles, harsher and more shrill from young birds than adults.^[7]

The average lifespan of Bald Eagles in the wild is around 20 years, with the oldest living to be about 30. In captivity, they often live somewhat longer. In one instance, a captive individual in New York lived for nearly 50 years. As with size, the average lifespan of an eagle population appears to be influenced by its location.^[4]

[edit] Taxonomy

Subspecies H. l. washingtoniensis in flight, Alaska

This sea eagle gets both its common and scientific names from the distinctive appearance of the adult's head. Bald in the English name is derived from the word piebald, and refers to the white head and tail feathers and their contrast with the darker body^{[citation needed]}. The scientific name is derived from Haliaeetus, New Latin for "sea eagle" (from the Ancient Greek haliaetos), and leucocephalus, Latinized Ancient Greek for "white head," from λευκος leukos ("white") and κεφαλη kephale ("head").^[9][10]

The Bald Eagle was one of the many species originally described by Linnaeus in his 18th century work Systema Naturae, under the name Falco leucocephalus.^[11]

There are two recognized subspecies of Bald Eagle:^[2][12]

• H. l. leucocephalus (Linnaeus, 1766) is the nominate subspecies. It is separated from H. l. alascanus at approximately latitude 38° N, or roughly the latitude of San Francisco.^[13] It is found in the southern United States and Baja California.^[14]
• H. l. washingtoniensis (Audubon, 1827), synonym H. l. alascanus Townsend, 1897, the northern subspecies, is larger than southern nominate leucocephalus. It is found in the northern United States, Canada and Alaska.^[2][14] This subspecies reaches further south than latitude 38° N on the Atlantic Coast, where they occur in the Cape Hatteras area.^[13]

The Bald Eagle forms a species pair with the Eurasian White-tailed Eagle. This species pair consists of a white-headed and a tan-headed species of roughly equal size; the White-tailed Eagle also has overall somewhat paler brown body plumage. The pair diverged from other Sea Eagles at the beginning of the Early Miocene (c. 10 Ma BP) at the latest, but possibly as early as the Early/Middle Oligocene, 28 Ma BP, if the most ancient fossil record is correctly assigned to this genus.^[15] The two species probably diverged in the North Pacific, as the White-tailed Eagle spread westwards into Eurasia and the Bald Eagle spread eastwards into North America.^[16]

[edit] Habitat and range

Juvenile with salmon in Alaska

The Bald Eagle prefers habitats near seacoasts, rivers, large lakes, and other large bodies of open water with an abundance of fish. Studies have shown a preference for bodies of water with a circumference greater than 11 km (7 miles), and lakes with an area greater than 10 km² (3.8 square miles) are optimal for breeding bald eagles.^[17]

The Bald Eagle requires old-growth and mature stands of coniferous or hardwood trees for perching, roosting, and nesting. Selected trees must have good visibility, an open structure, and proximity to prey, but the height or species of tree is not as important as an abundance of comparatively large trees surrounding the body of water. Forests used for nesting should have a canopy cover of no more than than 60 percent, and no less than 20 percent, and be in close proximity to water.^[17]

The Bald Eagle is extremely sensitive to human activity, and is found most commonly in areas free of human disturbance. It chooses sites more than 1.2 km (0.75 miles) from low-density human disturbance and more than 1.8 km (1.2 miles) from medium- to high-density human disturbance.^[17]

Bald Eagle at the Roger Williams Park Zoo, Providence, Rhode Island

The Bald Eagle's natural range covers most of North America, including most of Canada, all of the continental United States, and northern Mexico. It is the only sea eagle endemic to North America. Occupying varied habitats from the bayous of Louisiana to the Sonoran Desert and the eastern deciduous forests of Quebec and New England, northern birds are migratory, while southern birds are resident, remaining on their breeding territory all year. At minimum population, in the 1950s, it was largely restricted to Alaska, the Aleutian Islands, northern and eastern Canada, and Florida.^[18]

It has occurred as a vagrant twice in Ireland; a juvenile was shot illegally in Fermanagh on January 11, 1973 (misidentified at first as a White-tailed Eagle), and an exhausted juvenile was captured in Kerry on November 15, 1987.^[19] Bald Eagles will also congregate in certain locations in winter. From November until February, one to two thousand birds winter in Squamish, British Columbia, about halfway between Vancouver and Whistler. The birds primarily gather along the Squamish and Cheakamus Rivers, attracted by the salmon spawning in the area.^[20]

[edit] Behavior

Eating whale carrion

The Bald Eagle is a powerful flier, and soars on thermal convection currents. It reaches speeds of 56–70 km/h (35–44 miles per hour) when gliding and flapping, and about 48 km/h (30 miles per hour) while carrying fish.^[21] Its dive speed is between 120-160 km/h (75-100 miles per hour), though it seldom dives vertically.^[22] It is partially migratory, depending on location. If its territory has access to open water, it remains there year-round, but if the body of water freezes during the winter, making it impossible to obtain food, it migrates to the south or to the coast. The Bald Eagle selects migration routes which take advantage of thermals, updrafts, and food resources. During migration, it may ascend in a thermal and then glide down, or may ascend in updrafts created by the wind against a cliff or other terrain. Migration generally takes place during the daytime, when thermals are produced by the sun.^[5]

[edit] Diet

The Bald Eagle's diet is opportunistic and varied, but most feed mainly on fish. In the Pacific Northwest, spawning trout and salmon provide most of the Bald Eagles' diet.^[23] Locally, eagles may rely largely on carrion, especially in winter, and they will scavenge carcasses up to the size of whales, though it seems that carcasses of ungulates and large fish are preferred. They also may sometimes feed on subsistence scavenged or stolen from campsites and picnics, as well as garbage dumps. Mammalian prey includes rabbits, hares, raccoons, muskrats, beavers, sea otters, and deer fawns. Preferred avian prey includes grebes, alcids, ducks, gulls, coots, egrets and geese. Most live prey are quite a bit smaller than the eagle, but predatory attacks on large birds such as the Great Blue Heron and even swans have been recorded. Reptiles, amphibians and crustaceans (especially crabs) are preyed on when available.

With a freshly caught fish

To hunt fish, easily their most important live prey, the eagle swoops down over the water and snatches the fish out of the water with its talons. They eat by holding the fish in one claw and tearing the flesh with the other. Eagles have structures on their toes called spiricules that allow them to grasp fish. Osprey also have this adaptation.^[21] Bald Eagles have powerful talons and have been recorded flying with a 15-pound Mule Deer fawn.^[24]

Sometimes, if the fish is too heavy to lift, the eagle will be dragged into the water. It may swim to safety, but some eagles drown or succumb to hypothermia. When competing for food, eagles will usually dominate other fish-eaters and scavengers, aggressively displacing mammals such as coyotes and foxes, and birds such as corvids, gulls, vultures and other raptors. Bald Eagles may be displaced by or themselves displace Golden Eagles, with neither species known to be dominant. Occasionally, Bald Eagles will steal fish away from smaller raptors, such as Ospreys, a practice known as kleptoparasitism.^[25] Healthy adult Bald Eagles are not preyed on in the wild and are thus considered apex predators.^[26]

[edit] Reproduction

Two chicks (eaglets)

A nest

Bald Eagles are sexually mature at four or five years of age. When they are old enough to breed, they often return to the area where they were born. It is thought that Bald Eagles mate for life. However, if one member of a pair dies or disappears, the other will choose a new mate. A pair which has repeatedly failed in breeding attempts may split and look for new mates.^[27] Bald Eagle courtship involves elaborate calls and flight displays. The flight includes swoops, chases, and cartwheels, in which they fly high, lock talons, and free fall, separating just before hitting the ground.^[28]

The nest is the largest of any bird in North America; it is used repeatedly over many years and with new material added each year may eventually be as large as 4 meters (13 ft) deep, 2.5 meters (8 ft) across and weigh one tonne (1.1 tons);^[2] one nest in Florida was found to be 6.1 meters deep (20 ft), 2.9 meters (9.5 ft) across, and to weigh 2.722 tonnes (3 tons).^[29] The nest is built out of branches, usually in large trees near water. When breeding where there are no trees, the Bald Eagle will nest on the ground. Eagles produce between one and three eggs per year, but it is rare for all three chicks to successfully fly. Both the male and female take turns incubating the eggs. The other parent will hunt for food or look for nesting material. The eggs average about 7.3 centimeters (2.9 in) long and have a breadth of 5.5 centimeters (2.2 in).^[21]

Newly fledged juvenile

The incubation period averages at about 35 days and the parents will brood their offspring until they are about four weeks of age. The fledging stage can occur at any time from 70 to 92 days, the wide variation dictated by the effects of sex and hatching order on growth and development. Egg and nestling predation may be committed by Black-billed Magpies, gulls, ravens and crows, black bears and raccoons. With no known predators themselves, adults will fiercely defend their offspring from these species.

[edit] Relationship with humans

[edit] Population decline and recovery

Once a common sight in much of the continent, the Bald Eagle was severely affected in the mid-20th century by a variety of factors, among them thinning of egg shells, attributed to the use of the pesticide DDT.^[30] Bald Eagles, like many birds of prey, were especially affected by DDT due to biomagnification. DDT itself was not lethal to the adult bird, but it interfered with the bird's calcium metabolism, making the bird either sterile or unable to lay healthy eggs. Female eagles laid eggs that were too brittle to withstand the weight of a brooding adult, making it nearly impossible to produce young.^[18] It is estimated that in the early 1700s, the bald eagle population was 300,000–500,000,^[31] but by the 1950s there were only 412 nesting pairs in the 48 contiguous states of the US. Other factors in Bald Eagle population reductions were a widespread loss of suitable habitat, and illegal shooting, which was described as "the leading cause of direct mortality in both adult and immature bald eagles," according to a 1978 report in the Endangered Species Technical Bulletin. In 1984, the National Wildlife Federation listed hunting, power line electrocution, and collisions in flight as the leading causes of eagle deaths. Bald Eagle populations have also been negatively affected by oil, lead, and mercury pollution, and by human and predator intrusion.^[32]

First-year

The species was first protected in the U.S. and Canada by the 1918 Migratory Bird Treaty, later extended to all of North America. The 1940 Bald Eagle Protection Act in the U.S., which protected the Bald Eagle and the Golden Eagle, prohibited commercial trapping and killing of the birds. The Bald Eagle was declared an endangered species in the U.S. in 1967, and amendments to the 1940 act between 1962 and 1972 further restricted commercial uses and increased penalties for violators. Also in 1972, DDT was banned in the United States.^[33] DDT was completely banned in Canada in 1989, though its use had been highly restricted since the late 1970s.^[34]

With regulations in place and DDT banned, the eagle population rebounded. The Bald Eagle can be found in growing concentrations throughout the United States and Canada, particularly near large bodies of water. In the early 1980s, the estimated total population was 100,000 birds, with 110,000–115,000 by 1992;^[2] the U.S. state with the largest resident population is Alaska, with about 40,000–50,000 birds, with the next highest population being the Canadian province of British Columbia with 20,000–30,000 birds in 1992.^[2]

It was officially removed from the U.S. federal government's list of endangered species on July 12, 1995 by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, when it was reclassified from "Endangered" to "Threatened." On July 6, 1999, a proposal was initiated "To Remove the Bald Eagle in the Lower 48 States From the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife." It was de-listed on June 28, 2007.^[35] It has also been assigned a risk level of Least Concern category on the IUCN Red List.^[36]

[edit] In captivity

Wearing jesses for falconry

At the US National Zoo.

Permits are required to keep Bald Eagles in captivity in the United States. Permits are primarily issued to public educational institutions, and the eagles which they show are permanently injured individuals which cannot be released to the wild. The facilities where eagles are kept must be equipped with adequate caging and facilities, as well as workers experienced in the handling and care of eagles. Bald Eagles cannot legally be kept for falconry in the United States. As a rule, the Bald Eagle is a poor choice for public shows, being timid, prone to becoming highly stressed, and unpredictable in nature. Native American Tribes can obtain a "Native American Religious Use" permit to keep non-releasable eagles as well. They use their naturally molted feathers for religious and cultural ceremonies. The Bald Eagle can be long-lived in captivity if well cared for, but does not breed well even under the best conditions.^[37] In Canada, a license is required to keep Bald Eagles for falconry.^[38]

[edit] As the national bird of the United States

The Bald Eagle is the national bird of the United States of America. It is one of the country's most recognizable symbols, and appears on most of its official seals, including the Seal of the President of the United States.

The Continental Congress adopted the current design for the Great Seal of the United States including a Bald Eagle grasping thirteen arrows and a thirteen-leaf olive branch with its talons on June 20, 1782.^[39]

Seal of the President of the United States

After the end of the Revolutionary War, Benjamin Franklin wrote a famous letter from Paris in 1784, to his daughter, criticizing the choice and suggesting the Wild Turkey as a better representative of American qualities. He described the Bald Eagle as "a Bird of bad moral character," who, "too lazy to fish for himself" survived by robbing the Osprey. He called the Bald Eagle "a rank Coward" easily driven from a perch by the much smaller kingbird. In the letter, Franklin wrote the Turkey is, "a much more respectable Bird," which he described as "a little vain & silly [but] a Bird of Courage."^[39]

The Bald Eagle remained the emblem of the United States. It can be found on both national seals and on the back of several coins (including the quarter dollar coin until 1999), with its head oriented towards the olive branch. Between 1916 and 1945, the Presidential Flag showed an eagle facing to its left (the viewer's right), which gave rise to the urban legend that the seal is changed to have the eagle face towards the olive branch in peace, and towards the arrows in wartime.^[40]

[edit] Role in Native American culture

An adult eagle landing on nest

The Bald Eagle is a sacred bird in some North American cultures, and its feathers, like those of the Golden Eagle, are central to many religious and spiritual customs among Native Americans. Eagles are considered spiritual messengers between gods and humans by some cultures.^[41] Many pow wow dancers use the eagle claw as part of their regalia as well. Eagle feathers are often used in traditional ceremonies, particularly in the construction of regalia worn and as a part of fans, bustles and head dresses. The Lakota, for instance, give an eagle feather as a symbol of honor to person who achieves a task. In modern times, it may be given on an event such as a graduation from college.^[42] The Pawnee considered eagles as symbols of fertility because their nests are built high off the ground and because they fiercely protect their young. The Kwakwaka'wakw scattered eagle down to welcome important guests.^[43] The Choctaw explained that the Bald Eagle, who has direct contact with the upper world of the sun, is a symbol of peace.^[44]

During the Sun Dance, which is practiced by many Plains Indian tribes, the eagle is represented in several ways. The eagle nest is represented by the fork of the lodge where the dance is held. A whistle made from the wing bone of an eagle is used during the course of the dance. Also during the dance, a medicine man may direct his fan, which is made of eagle feathers, to people who seek to be healed. The medicine man touches the fan to the center pole and then to the patient, in order to transmit power from the pole to the patient. The fan is then held up toward the sky, so that the eagle may carry the prayers for the sick to the Creator.^[45]

Current eagle feather law stipulates that only individuals of certifiable Native American ancestry enrolled in a federally recognized tribe are legally authorized to obtain Bald or Golden Eagle feathers for religious or spiritual use. The constitutionality of these laws has been questioned by Native American groups on the basis that it violates the First Amendment by affecting ability to practice their religion freely.^[46] Additionally, only members of federally recognized tribes are legally allowed to possess eagle feathers, preventing non-federally recognized tribe members from practicing religion freely. The laws have also been criticized on grounds of racial preferences and infringements on tribal sovereignty.^[47]

[edit] See also

North America portal

• List of national birds
• Coat of arms of the Philippines

[edit] References

1. ^ BirdLife International (2004). Haliaeetus leucocephalus. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN 2006. Retrieved on 2007-11-11.
2. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j} del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A., & Sargatal, J., eds. (1994). Handbook of the Birds of the World Vol. 2. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona ISBN 84-87334-15-6.
3. ^ "Bald Eagle Facts and Information". Eagles.org. http://www.eagles.org/moreabout.html. Retrieved on 2008-11-03.
4. ^ ^{a b} "Bald Eagle Fact Sheet". Southern Ontario Bald Eagle Monitoring Project. http://www.bsc-eoc.org/regional/oneaglefacts.html. Retrieved on 2008-06-30.
5. ^ ^{a b c} Harris. "Bald Eagle Haliaeetus leucocephalus". University of Michigan Museum of Geology. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Haliaeetus_leucocephalus.html. Retrieved on 2007-06-21.
6. ^ ^{a b} "Bald Eagle, Haliaeetus leucocephalus". Cornell Lab of Ornithology. http://www.birds.cornell.edu/AllAboutBirds/BirdGuide/Bald_Eagle_dtl.html. Retrieved on 2007-06-21.
7. ^ ^{a b} Sibley, D. (2000). The Sibley Guide to Birds. National Audubon Society ISBN 0-679-45122-6 p.127
8. ^ Bird, D.M. (2004). The Bird Almanac: A Guide to Essential Facts and Figures of the World's Birds. Ontario: Firefly Books. ISBN 1552979259.
9. ^ Joshua Dietz. "What's in a Name". Smithsonian National Zoological Park. http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/Whats_in_a_name/default.cfm?id=19. Retrieved on August 19 2007.
10. ^ Liddell, Henry George and Robert Scott (1980). A Greek-English Lexicon (Abridged Edition). United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-910207-4.
11. ^ (Latin) Linnaeus, Carolus (1766). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio duodecima, reformata.. Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii)..
12. ^ "Haliaeetus leucocephalus" (in English). Integrated Taxonomic Information System. http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=175420. Retrieved on 2007-06-21.
13. ^ ^{a b} "Bald Eagle Haliaeetus leucocephalus". The Pacific Wildlife Foundation. http://www.pwlf.org/baldeagle.htm. Retrieved on 2007-06-27.
14. ^ ^{a b} Brown, N. L.. "Bald Eagle Haliaeetus leucocephalus". http://esrpweb.csustan.edu/speciesprofiles/profile.php?sp=hale. Retrieved on 2007-08-20.
15. ^ Wink, M; Heidrich, P. & Fentzloff, C (1996). "A mtDNA phylogeny of sea eagles (genus Haliaeetus) based on nucleotide sequences of the cytochrome b gene" (PDF). Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 24: 783–791. doi:10.1016/S0305-1978(97)81217-3. http://www.uni-heidelberg.de/institute/fak14/ipmb/phazb/pubwink/1996/20_1996.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-11-07.
16. ^ "Bald Eagle Habitat" (in English). Bald-Eagles.info. http://www.bald-eagles.info/habitat.php. Retrieved on 2007-06-21.
17. ^ ^{a b c} "WILDLIFE SPECIES: Haliaeetus leucocephalus". USDA Forest Service. http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/animals/bird/hale/all.html. Retrieved on 2007-06-21.
18. ^ ^{a b} Bull J, Farrand, J Jr (1987). Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Birds:Eastern Region. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 468–9. ISBN 0-394-41405-5.
19. ^ British Ornithologists' Union Records Committee. "25th Report (October 1998)". British Ornithologists Union. http://www.bou.org.uk/recrep25.html. Retrieved on 2007-08-19.
20. ^ Hope Rutledge. "Where to View Bald Eagles". http://www.baldeagleinfo.com/eagle/eagle1.html. Retrieved on 2007-08-20.
21. ^ ^{a b c} Terres, J. K. (1980). The Audubon Society Encyclopedia of North American Birds. New York, NY: Knopf. pp. 644–646. ISBN 0394466519.
22. ^ "Bald Eagle Facts and Information". Eagles.org. 2007-06-28. http://www.eagles.org/moreabout.html. Retrieved on 2009-03-03.
23. ^ Daum, David W.. "Bald Eagle". Alaska Department of Fish & Game. http://www.adfg.state.ak.us/pubs/notebook/bird/eagles.php. Retrieved on 2007-08-15.
24. ^ "BIRDS OF PREY — Diet & Eating Habits". Seaworld.org. http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/info-books/raptors/diet.htm. Retrieved on 2009-03-03.
25. ^ Jorde, D.G.; Lingle, G (1998). "Kleptoparasitism by Bald Eagles wintering in South-Central Nebraska" (PDF). Journal of Field Ornithology 59 (2): 183–188. http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/JFO/v059n02/p0183-p0188.pdf. Retrieved on 2007-08-21.
26. ^ "San Diego Zoo's Animal Bytes: Bald Eagle". Sandiegozoo.org. http://www.sandiegozoo.org/animalbytes/t-bald_eagle.html. Retrieved on 2009-03-03.
27. ^ R.F. Stocek. "Bald Eagle". Canadian Wildlife Service. http://www.hww.ca/hww2.asp?id=27. Retrieved on 2007-08-19.
28. ^ "Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus)". Michigan Department of Natural Resources. http://www.michigan.gov/dnr/0,1607,7-153-10370_12145_12202-32581--,00.html. Retrieved on 2007-04-24.
29. ^ Erickson, L. (2007). Bald Eagle Journey North About Bald Eagle Nests
30. ^ Brown, Leslie (1976). Birds of Prey: Their biology and ecology. Hamlyn. p. 226. ISBN 0-600-31306-9.
31. ^ "Bald Eagle Facts and Information". American eagle foundation. http://www.eagles.org/moreabout.html. Retrieved on 2008-01-03.
32. ^ Milloy, Steven (2006-07-06). "Bald Eagle". Fox News. http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,202447,00.html. Retrieved on 2008-01-03.
33. ^ EPA press release (1972-12-31). "DDT Ban Takes Effect". United States Environmental Protection Agency. http://www.epa.gov/history/topics/ddt/01.htm. Retrieved on 2007-08-22.
34. ^ Barrera, Jorge (2005-07-04). "Agent Orange has left deadly legacy Fight continues to ban pesticides and herbicides across Canada". http://www.nben.ca/environews/media/mediaarchives/05/july/legacy.htm. Retrieved on 2007-08-22.
35. ^ "Bald Eagle Soars Off Endangered Species List". U.S. Department of the Interior. 2007-06-28. http://www.doi.gov/news/07_News_Releases/070628.html. Retrieved on 2007-08-27.
36. ^ BirdLife International (2004). Haliaeetus leucocephalus. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN 2006. Retrieved on 2008-01-03.
37. ^ Maestrelli, John R.; Stanley N. Wiemeyer (March 1975). "Breeding Bald Eagles in Captivity". The Wilson Bulletin 87 (I). http://64.233.169.104/search?q=cache:XHsa26srbBgJ:elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Wilson/v087n01/p0045-p0053.pdf+bald+eagle+%2B+breeding+in+captivity&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1&gl=us&client=firefox-. Retrieved on 2007-08-19.
38. ^ Fish and Wildlife Conservation Act, 1997. Ministry of Attorney General. http://www.search.e-laws.gov.on.ca/en/isysquery/ca733c6b-d473-44df-952a-203eb9829bcd/4/frame/?search=browseStatutes&context=. Retrieved on 2007-11-07.
39. ^ ^{a b} "Original Design of the Great Seal of the United States (1782)". National Archives. http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=5. Retrieved on 2007-08-19.
40. ^ Mikkelson, Barbara & Mikkelson, David P. "A Turn of the Head". snopes.com. http://www.snopes.com/history/american/turnhead.htm. Retrieved on 2007-08-19.
41. ^ Julie Collier. "The Sacred Messengers". Mashantucket Pequot Museum. http://www.pequotmuseum.org/Home/CrossPaths/CrossPathsSpring2003/TheSacredMessengers.htm. Retrieved on 2007-05-20.
42. ^ Melmer, David (2007-06-11). "Bald eagles may come off threatened list". Indian Country Today. http://www.indiancountry.com/content.cfm?id=1096415182. Retrieved on 2007-08-23.
43. ^ Brown, Steven C.; Averill, Lloyd J.. "Sun Dogs and Eagle Down". University of Washington Press. http://www.washington.edu/uwpress/search/books/BROSUN.html. Retrieved on 2007-08-23.
44. ^ O'Brien, Greg (2005). "Power Derived from the Outside World". Choctaws in a Revolutionary Age, 1750-1830. University of Nebraska Press. p. 58. ISBN 0803286228.
45. ^ Lawrence, Elizabeth Atwood. "The Symbolic Role of Animals in the Plains Indian Sun Dance". University of Washington Press. http://www.psyeta.org/sa/sa1.1/lawrence.html. Retrieved on 2007-08-23.
46. ^ DeMeo, Antonia M. (1995). "Access to Eagles and Eagle Parts: Environmental Protection v. Native American Free Exercise of Religion". Hastings Constitutional Law Quarterly 22 (3): 771–813. http://www.animallaw.info/articles/ar22hstclq771.htm. Retrieved on 2007-08-22.
47. ^ Boradiansky, Tina S. (1990). "Conflicting Values: The Religious Killing of Federally Protected Wildlife". University of New Mexico School of Law. http://www.animallaw.info/articles/arus30nrj709.htm. Retrieved on 2007-08-23.

[edit] Further reading

• Beans, Bruce E. (1996). Eagle's Plume: The Struggle to Preserve the Life and Haunts of America's Bald Eagle. New York, NY: Scribner. ISBN 0684806967. OCLC 35029744.

• Gerrard, Jonathan M.; Bortolotti, Gary R. (1988). The Bald Eagle: Haunts and Habits of a Wilderness Monarch. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 0874744512. OCLC 16801779.

• Isaacson, Philip M. (1975). The American Eagle (1st ed.). Boston, MA: New York Graphic Society. ISBN 0821206125. OCLC 1366058.

• Knight, Richard L.; Gutzwiller, Kevin J. (1995). Wildlife and Recreationists: Coexistence through Management and Research. Washington, DC: Island Press. ISBN 1559632577. OCLC 30893485.

• Laycock, George (1973). Autumn of the Eagle. New York. NY: Scribner. ISBN 0684134136. OCLC 754345.

• Petersen, Shannon (2002). Acting for Endangered Species: The Statutory Ark. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 070061172X. OCLC 48477567.

• Spencer, Donald A. (1976). Wintering of the Migrant Bald Eagle in the Lower 48 States. Washington, DC: National Agricultural Chemicals Association. OCLC 2985418.

• Stalmaster, Mark V. (1987). The Bald Eagle. New York, NY: Universe Books. ISBN 0876634919. OCLC 15014825.

• Temple, Stanley A. (1978). Endangered Birds: Management Techniques for Preserving Threatened Species. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0299075206. OCLC 3750666.

[edit] Identification

• Grant, Peter J. (1988) The Co. Kerry Bald Eagle Twitching 1(12): 379-80 - describes plumage differences between Bald Eagle and White-tailed Eagle in juveniles